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Cryopreservation of Cells: Best Practices for Long-Term Storage

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Cryopreservation of Cells

Cell cryopreservation is a really important technique in science. It lets scientists keep living cells super cold, so they stay alive and usable for future experiments. This helps keep cell lines consistent, saves money, and makes sure research results are reliable. Let’s learn about how scientists freeze cells and store them for a long time.

Cryopreservation has made a big difference in biomedical research. It allows scientists to keep valuable cell lines and primary cells for long periods. This helps make experiments more repeatable and allows for long-term studies.

Key Takeaways
  • Cryopreservation keeps cells at very low temperatures, usually below -135°C
  • Special chemicals like DMSO protect cells during freezing
  • Controlling how fast cells cool down and storing them at the right temperature is really important
  • Best ways to freeze cells include using healthy cells, the right freezing liquids, and thawing them quickly
  • Frozen cells are super important for making new medicines, studying cancer, and regenerative medicine

What is Cell Cryopreservation?

Cryopreservation is freezing biological stuff, like cells, at very low temperatures. This slows down what’s happening inside cells and stops damage that would normally happen over time. When done right, frozen cells can be stored for years and still work when thawed out. The process carefully balances taking water out of cells to stop ice from forming inside while keeping the cell’s structure and function intact.

The main goal is to protect cells from ice crystals, which can hurt or kill them. To do this, scientists use special chemicals called cryoprotectants and carefully control how cells freeze and thaw. These chemicals replace water in the cell, reduce ice crystal formation, and protect cell parts from freeze-thaw damage. The whole process needs to be really precise to make sure cells are still good when they’re thawed.

Key Parts of Successful Cryopreservation

  1. Cryoprotective Agents (CPAs)

Cryoprotective agents are chemicals that help protect cells during freezing. They work by reducing ice crystal formation and preventing cells from drying out too much. The most common CPA used is dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). DMSO works well because it can quickly get into cells and isn’t too toxic at the amounts used for freezing. Other CPAs include glycerol, ethylene glycol, and different sugars, each with specific benefits for different types of cells.

Learn more about DMSO cryoprotectant at Cytion.com

  1. Controlled Cooling Rate

How fast cells cool down is really important for successful cryopreservation. Usually, a slow, controlled cooling rate of about -1°C to -3°C per minute is best. This lets water move out of the cells slowly, which reduces the risk of ice crystals forming inside. The controlled cooling rate is crucial because it allows for the best balance between cells drying out and ice forming inside them. If cells cool too fast, ice can form inside. If they cool too slowly, they can dry out too much and get stressed.

  1. Proper Storage Temperature

Once frozen, cells need to be kept at ultra-low temperatures, usually below -135°C. This is often done using liquid nitrogen storage tanks. At these temperatures, all biological processes basically stop, which prevents cells from breaking down and keeps them viable for a long time. It’s really important to keep the storage temperature steady, as changes can lead to ice recrystallizing and damaging cells. Proper monitoring and maintenance of storage systems are essential for long-term preservation success.

Best Ways to Freeze Cells

  1. Prepare Healthy Cells

Start with cells that are in good condition and growing well. Cells should be in their growing phase and more than 90% should be alive. Using healthy cells helps more of them survive the freezing and thawing processes. It’s important not to freeze cells that are stressed, contaminated, or getting old, as these factors can really reduce how well they survive and work after thawing.

  1. Use the Right Freezing Liquid

The freezing liquid should have the right cryoprotectant (usually 5-10% DMSO) and might also include serum or other protective proteins. The mix of the freezing liquid can be made just right for different cell types to help as many cells as possible survive after thawing. Some cell types might do better with growth factors or other supplements added to the freezing liquid. It’s important to make fresh freezing liquid each time you freeze cells to make sure they’re protected as well as possible.

  1. Cool Cells Slowly and Steadily

Use a special container that controls the cooling rate to get the best cooling rate of -1°C to -3°C per minute. This can be done with special equipment or simpler cooling devices like Mr. Frosty containers. Steady cooling rates are really important to let cells dry out properly and prevent ice from forming inside them. Some advanced freezing methods might use multi-step cooling processes for especially sensitive cell types.

  1. Move to Long-Term Storage Quickly

Once cells reach -80°C, move them quickly to liquid nitrogen storage for long-term keeping. This move should be done fast to prevent any warming of the samples, which could lead to ice recrystallizing and damaging cells. Properly labeling and organizing stored samples is crucial for easily finding and tracking frozen cells.

  1. Thaw Cells Rapidly

When it’s time to use the cells, thaw them quickly in a 37°C water bath. This fast thawing helps prevent ice crystals from forming as the cells warm up. Quickly removing the cryoprotectants and slowly putting cells back into normal growth liquid are important steps to minimize shock to the cells and help as many survive as possible. It’s a good idea to check how many cells are alive and how well they’re working shortly after thawing to make sure the preserved cells are still good quality.

Key Cell Lines Used in Research

Several cell lines are commonly used in scientific research because of their special properties and uses. Let’s look at some of the most important ones:

  1. HeLa Cells

HeLa cells are one of the oldest and most widely used human cell lines in scientific research. They came from cervical cancer cells taken from Henrietta Lacks in 1951. These cells have helped with many scientific breakthroughs, including making the polio vaccine and advances in cancer research.

Key features of HeLa cells:

  • Immortal (can keep dividing forever in culture)
  • Tough and easy to grow
  • Used in cancer research, testing drugs, and making vaccines
  • Have unique genetic characteristics because they come from cancer
  • Used as a model to study human cellular processes and diseases

Explore MDA-MB-231 cells, a breast cancer cell line similar to HeLa cells

  1. HEK293 Cells

HEK293 cells come from human embryonic kidney cells. They’re widely used in biotechnology and pharmaceutical research. These cells are really useful for making proteins and studying how cells respond to different things.

Key features of HEK293 cells:

  • Easy to grow and add new genes to
  • Often used to make proteins
  • Useful for studying how cells communicate
  • Can grow without animal serum and in suspension
  • Widely used in drug screening and toxicity studies

Check out U2OS cells, another versatile cell line for research

  1. Jurkat Cells

Jurkat cells are a type of human T lymphocyte cells that can live forever in culture. They’re used a lot in studies of the immune system and how T cells send signals. These cells have been really important for understanding how T cells get activated and how various immune-related disorders happen.

Key features of Jurkat cells:

  • Model for studying how T cells get activated
  • Used in immunology and cancer research
  • Help in understanding how HIV infects cells
  • Valuable for studying cell death and survival
  • Used in developing immunotherapies and cancer treatments
  1. CHO Cells

Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells are the most commonly used mammalian cells for making therapeutic proteins in industry. They’re really valuable in the biopharmaceutical industry because they can make proteins with modifications similar to human cells.

Key features of CHO cells:

  • Grow fast and make a lot of protein
  • Can adapt to various growing conditions
  • Used for making antibodies and other biopharmaceuticals
  • Can do complex modifications to proteins
  • Well-studied and optimized for large-scale production

Discover A549 cells, another important cell line in biomedical research

Uses of Cryopreserved Cells in Modern Science

Cryopreserved cells are really important in various areas of scientific research and medical applications:

  1. Drug Development and Testing

Cryopreserved cells let researchers keep consistent cell lines for screening drugs and testing how toxic they are. This ensures experiments can be repeated with the same results across different labs. Using standardized cell populations makes drug efficacy and safety tests more reliable. Cryopreserved primary cells from various tissues also provide more realistic models for drug testing compared to immortalized cell lines.

  1. Cancer Research

Cryopreserved cancer cell lines let scientists study cancer biology, test potential treatments, and develop new therapies without needing fresh tumor samples all the time. These preserved cells allow for long-term studies on how cancer progresses, spreads, and becomes resistant to drugs. Patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) can also be cryopreserved, providing valuable models for personalized cancer treatment approaches.

  1. Vaccine Production

Many vaccines are made using cell cultures. Cryopreserved cells provide a reliable source of cells for vaccine manufacturing, ensuring consistent quality and production capacity. Being able to keep large banks of well-characterized cells is crucial for quickly developing vaccines, especially when responding to new infectious diseases or pandemics.

  1. Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research

Cryopreservation allows long-term storage of stem cells and other cell types used in regenerative medicine. This is crucial for developing cell-based therapies and tissue engineering applications. Cryopreserved stem cells can be banked for future treatments using a patient’s own cells or cells from donors, potentially revolutionizing personalized medicine approaches. The ability to preserve induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and their differentiated progeny is particularly valuable for modeling diseases and screening drugs.

Challenges and Ethical Considerations

While freezing cells offers many benefits, it also comes with challenges and ethical considerations:

  1. Contamination Risks

Proper clean techniques and regular testing are essential to prevent bacterial, fungal, or mycoplasma contamination of cell cultures. Storing cells for a long time increases the risk of introducing contaminants during handling and storage. Using strict quality control measures and growing cells without antibiotics when possible can help reduce these risks. Regularly checking cryopreserved stocks for contaminants is crucial to maintain the integrity of cell banks.

  1. Genetic Drift

Over time and after many passages, cell lines can experience genetic changes. Regularly checking cell lines to make sure they’re still the same is important to ensure their identity and characteristics remain consistent. Genetic drift can lead to changes in how cells look and respond to experimental treatments, potentially messing up research results. Limiting how many times cells are passaged and periodically going back to early passage stocks can help maintain genetic stability.

  1. Ethical Use of Human-Derived Cell Lines

Using cell lines that come from humans, especially those obtained without proper permission (like the original HeLa cells), raises ethical concerns. It’s important to use cell lines ethically and properly acknowledge where they came from. Modern bioethics guidelines stress the importance of informed consent and protecting the privacy of people who donate biological materials. Researchers should be aware of the ethical implications of using certain cell lines and consider alternatives when appropriate.

Conclusion

Freezing cells is a really important technique in modern biological research and biotechnology. By following best practices for freezing, storing, and thawing cells, scientists can keep high-quality cell lines for various uses. From discovering new drugs to regenerative medicine, cryopreserved cells continue to play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of biology and developing new medical treatments. The ability to preserve cells for a long time has greatly sped up scientific progress and opened new ways for personalized medicine and biotechnology applications.

As technology gets better, we can expect even better methods for cell preservation, potentially allowing for room-temperature storage or improved viability after long-term cryopreservation. These advancements will continue to support groundbreaking research and medical innovations in the years to come. New technologies like vitrification and automated biobanking are set to further improve the efficiency and reliability of cell preservation methods. The continued development of cryopreservation techniques will undoubtedly play a crucial role in shaping the future of biomedical research and personalized medicine.

Ready to start your cell culture experiments? Explore Cytion’s range of high-quality cell lines and cryopreservation products to support your research needs.

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Creative Custom Gift Boxes Wholesale for Festive and Corporate Gifting Solutions

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Custom Gift

When it comes to gifting, the packaging is almost as important as the gift itself. Whether you are trying to impress a client, show appreciation to a colleague or make your holiday gifts stand out, custom gift boxes are the way to go.

 When gifting season is up, there is a wide range of significance in chocolate favors, sweet treats, truffles, oat or choco flake cereals, multigrain strawberry cereals, cakes, and other instances. Personalized cereal boxes can be used during holiday seasons, as gifting cereals will be a healthy choice for your customers. These are a go-to for businesses and people who want to level up their gifting game without spending a lot of money. There can be creative ways of adopting gift packaging that is innovative and yet sturdy, representing the luxe to customers. For instance, you need luxurious packaging; it can be ordered from a reliable packaging supplier.

Why Custom Gift Boxes Matter

You have probably received a gift that was wrapped so nicely and thought, “Wow, this looks great!” You know that feeling, right? It is all about how it looks. Packaging can make a gift feel much more special, whether it is for a holiday or a business event. Custom gift boxes do not just make things look good; they help businesses create memories that last. From holiday gifts to corporate giveaways, these boxes add that extra touch of style.

If you are running a business or planning something special, custom gift boxes wholesale can really make a difference. They are useful, affordable and give you so many chances to get creative. Also, you can make them match the theme or branding of any event or company.

Custom Gift Boxes Wholesale: The Perfect Fit for Any Occasion

Whether it is a holiday, a corporate event or just a nice surprise, custom gift boxes are awesome. Here’s why they are so loved and how they can help both businesses and people:

  • Holiday Gifting: 

Picture sending out corporate gifts in custom packaging that matches the season, Christmas, New Year’s or even Valentine’s Day. The right box gives a fun and festive vibe that makes your gift feel even more special.

  • Corporate Gifting: 

Custom boxes are great for sending gifts to clients, employees, or business partners. It is a small but thoughtful gesture that shows your brand cares about the little things.

  • Personalized Touch: 

Custom gift boxes give you the chance to add logos, colors, and messages. In the season of holidays, breakfast has become important for customers, and for that you can introduce a superior artistic imagery in your cereal box packaging. Customers are fond of surprises, and adding the artful and mesmerizing halo effect to it will make them loyal to your brand.   For businesses, it is a great way to make your brand stand out and leave a lasting impression.

Why Choose Wholesale?

Custom gift boxes wholesale are not just a smart pick for businesses; they are affordable and practical for anyone. Let’s say you need to send gifts to a lot of people for a corporate event or a marketing campaign. Instead of spending a lot of money on single packaging, buying in bulk can save you a lot. Plus, it makes sure all the boxes look the same in design and quality, which is important if you want to make a good impression. Give a personalized touch to boxes made for cereals, treats, favors, macarons, cakes, and much more.

Custom Gift Boxes Wholesale: What to Consider

When buying custom gift boxes wholesale, it is important to think about a few things to make sure you are getting the best deal and quality:

  • Material Quality: 

Look for strong materials that will keep everything safe inside. Whether you are gifting gadgets, chocolates or anything else that might break easily, the box should be strong enough to handle shipping without getting damaged.

  • Size & Fit: 

You want your gifts to fit just right in their boxes, not too tight or loose. Make sure the box size suits the type of items you are packaging.

  • Customization Options: 

Check for printing options. Can you add your logo or special messages? Are there different colors and designs to choose from? Customization options will make your boxes stand out.

  • Eco-Friendliness:

These days, being eco-friendly matters. Many suppliers offer boxes made from recycled materials. Choosing these options shows that your brand cares about the environment.

The Benefits of Gifting with Custom Gift Boxes

Gifting, especially in business, is more than just giving a gift. It is a way to build connections, improve your brand and show you care. Here’s why custom gift boxes make gifts even better:

  • Brand Recognition:

For businesses, custom packaging gives you an edge. Whether it is your company logo or brand colors, custom gift boxes are a great way to show off your brand. Every time someone gets a gift in your box, they will think of your brand.

  • Elevated Perception: 

Getting a gift in a personalized box makes the experience feel extra special. It shows you cared and put effort into it, making the person feel important.

  • Unforgettable First Impressions:

Whether you are giving gifts to employees or clients, the packaging can really make an impact. The right box shows you care about the details.

  • Gifting with Purpose: 

Custom gift boxes are perfect for sending gifts that mean a lot, whether it is for holidays, saying thank you, or celebrating special moments. A nicely packaged gift shows you put thought and care into it.

Creative Ideas for Custom Gift Boxes

What is great about custom gift boxes is how creative you can get with them. Here are a few ideas to get you started:

  • Holiday Themes: 

Create custom gift boxes that match the holiday season, like Christmas colors, Halloween designs or New Year’s Eve glitter. You can even add themed decorations or scented paper to match the vibe.

  • Company Branding: 

For businesses, think about adding your logo, company tagline or colors to the boxes. This strengthens your brand and creates consistency across your materials.

  • Personalized Gifts: 

Make your gift boxes even more personal by adding custom messages or names. This is great for employee appreciation gifts or special clients. It adds a unique touch that shows you care.

  • Premium Packaging for Premium Products: 

If you are gifting high-end products, your packaging should show that. Choose luxury materials like velvet or textured cardboard for a premium feel.

How Custom Gift Boxes Wholesale Help Your Business Stand Out

For businesses, standing out in a busy market is important. Custom gift boxes can help with that. They give you a chance to be different and make a gift feel extra special for your clients or employees. Here’s how:

  • Competitive Edge:

In a sea of plain gifts, custom packaging makes your gift stand out. It shows you went the extra mile to make it memorable.

  • Brand Loyalty: 

When customers get a beautifully wrapped gift, do they not connect that good experience with your brand? It makes them more likely to come back.

  • Increased Perceived Value: 

The right packaging can make your gift feel more valuable. A well-designed box can turn even a small gift into something special, right?

How to Get Started with Custom Gift Boxes Wholesale

Ready to step up your gifting game? Here is a quick guide to get started:

  • Research Suppliers:

Look for companies that offer custom gift boxes wholesale. Read reviews and check out their work to make sure they meet your standards.

  • Decide on Design: 

Choose your box design, colors and customization options. Think about your audience, what would they like?

  • Place Your Order: 

Once you have decided on the design, it is time to order. If you are a business, make sure to buy in bulk for the best price.

  1. Delivery & Assembly: 

Pick a trusted supplier who can make sure your order arrives on time, especially if you have a deadline like a holiday or corporate event.

Conclusion

Custom gift boxes wholesale are not just about the box itself, they are all about making the moment special, showing you care and adding that extra touch to your gifts. Whether it is for the holidays, corporate gifting or personal celebrations, custom packaging really does make a difference.

If you want to make your gifts stand out, find a trusted supplier for your custom gift boxes. You will leave a lasting impression without spending too much.

Need great custom gift boxes at a good price? Check out Print24/7 and step up your gifting game today!

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Top Roofing Maintenance Tasks to Tackle This Spring

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Roofing Maintenance

Spring is the perfect time to give your roof a little extra attention. After months of exposure to wind, rain, sun, and falling debris, your roof could use a seasonal check-in to make sure it’s still doing its job. Whether you’re a homeowner or a property manager, staying on top of roof maintenance in spring can help you prevent small issues from turning into costly repairs down the line.

With milder temperatures and longer daylight hours, spring offers an ideal window to handle maintenance tasks safely and efficiently. In this article, experts from a local minority-owned roofing company will uncover the most important things to check off your list to keep your roof in peak condition.

1. Clear Out Gutters and Downspouts

Even in warmer regions, leaves, dust, and other debris can build up in your gutters throughout the year. If your gutters are clogged, water can overflow and damage your fascia, siding, and even the foundation. Make it a priority to clear out any blockages and ensure that downspouts are directing water away from your home. A quick rinse with the hose can help verify good flow.

2. Check for Missing or Damaged Shingles

Strong winds, UV exposure, and seasonal storms can loosen or damage shingles over time. Walk around your home and look for any visible signs of wear like curling, cracking, or missing shingles. If left unchecked, exposed underlayment can lead to leaks or water intrusion. Catching this early can save you from much bigger headaches.

3. Inspect Flashing and Sealants

Flashing is the metal material used around chimneys, vents, skylights, and other roof features. These are common leak points, especially if the flashing has pulled away or the sealant around it has dried out. Look for gaps, corrosion, or cracked caulk, any of which can be an open invitation for water to sneak in. Resealing these areas can extend the life of your roof.

4. Trim Overhanging Branches

Spring is a great time to trim back trees that may be growing too close to your roof. Branches that hang over your home can scrape against roofing material and drop leaves or twigs that collect in gutters. Worse, they can be a pathway for critters like squirrels or raccoons. Trimming branches back helps prevent both physical and pest-related damage.

5. Check for Signs of Mold or Algae

Warm, humid climates are a breeding ground for algae or mold growth on roofs, especially those with lots of shade. These streaks not only look unsightly, but over time they can also break down roofing materials. If you see discoloration or dark streaks, consider a gentle cleaning with a roofing-safe solution. Avoid pressure washing unless it’s absolutely necessary—and only with professional guidance.

6. Look at Your Attic or Ceiling

Sometimes roof problems make themselves known indoors first. Take a few minutes to look inside your attic or at your ceiling for any signs of moisture, staining, or musty odors. These can be subtle indicators that your roof might have a small leak that hasn’t yet become visible from the outside.

7. Schedule a Professional Inspection (If It’s Been a While)

If it’s been more than a year since your last roof inspection, or you’re just not sure, spring is a smart time to bring in a professional. A licensed roofer can spot potential problems that may not be obvious from the ground and give you peace of mind that your roof is in solid shape for the season ahead.

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How To Measure Surface Roughness?

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Surface Roughness

Surface roughness is one of the critical indicators for evaluating the quality of a workpiece, exerting a significant influence on its fit quality, motion precision, and wear resistance during use. Therefore, to ensure the machining quality of a workpiece, effective measures must be taken to reduce surface roughness.

Surface roughness is generally determined by the CNC machining process employed and other factors, such as friction between the tool and the workpiece surface during machining, plastic deformation of the surface layer metal during chip separation, and high-frequency vibrations within the machining system. Due to differences in machining methods and workpiece materials, the depth, density, shape, and texture of the marks left on the machined surface vary.

Surface roughness is closely related to the fit properties, wear resistance, fatigue strength, contact stiffness, vibration, and noise of mechanical components, significantly impacting the service life and reliability of mechanical products. The parameter Ra is commonly used for its designation.

There are several methods to measure surface roughness. One of the most common techniques is the contact-type measurement, which uses a stylus instrument. The stylus, with a very small tip, moves across the surface, and the vertical displacement of the stylus is recorded to obtain the roughness profile. Another method is non-contact measurement, such as optical methods. Optical profilometers use light to scan the surface and analyze the reflected or scattered light to determine the surface topography.

Contact Measurement Methods

Contact measurement methods involve direct contact between the probe of the measuring device and the surface, allowing users to obtain information about the surface being measured. However, this method is not suitable for surfaces with high rigidity or those prone to wear.

Comparative Measurement Method

A widely used measurement technique in workshops is the comparative method. This method involves comparing a standard roughness sample with the surface being tested. Measurement personnel determine surface roughness either by tactile assessment with their hands or through visual observation, sometimes aided by magnifying glasses or comparative microscopes. Typically, when the roughness evaluation parameter value is relatively high, the comparative method can be applied, though it may result in significant errors.

Impression Method

The impression method involves using a plastic material as a block mold, pressing it against the surface being tested, and then removing it to reveal the surface’s specific profile on the mold. Measurement personnel can then assess the roughness of the mold’s surface to determine the component’s surface roughness. For large-scale components where internal surface measurement cannot be achieved with equipment, the impression method offers a viable solution. However, this method has limitations, including lower accuracy and a complex operation process.

Stylus Method

The stylus method, also known as the profilometry method, involves placing a sharp stylus on the surface being tested. During measurement, the stylus is positioned vertically and moved laterally. As the stylus follows the surface profile, it undergoes vertical fluctuations. These displacements are converted into electrical signals through a circuit, which yields the surface roughness index after amplification, analysis, and calculation.

The stylus method encompasses several variants, including inductive, piezoelectric, and electromagnetic approaches. Instruments using this method offer high accuracy and reliability, are simple to operate, and provide stable performance, with a maximum resolution of a few nanometers during measurement.

However, the stylus method has inherent drawbacks that cannot be fully mitigated. Theoretically, only when the stylus tip has a radius of zero can its movement accurately reflect the true surface profile. In practice, the small contact area of the stylus tip can potentially damage the surface being tested and increase wear on the stylus itself, directly affecting measurement accuracy and speed.

Moreover, controlling the measurement force requires ensuring complete contact between the stylus tip and the surface while preventing damage to either the surface or the stylus. Consequently, this method faces challenges when applied to smooth surfaces in precision instruments, such as disk inspection sites, necessitating non-contact measurement alternatives.

Non-Contact Measurement Methods

Non-contact measurement methods indirectly obtain surface profile information without damaging the surface being tested. Their primary advantage is that they avoid direct contact between the surface and the measuring device’s probe, which helps maintain the equipment and significantly reduces measurement errors.

Light Sectioning Method

The light sectioning method utilizes the principle of light sectioning to measure surface roughness. It involves projecting a parallel light band onto the surface at a specific angle. The curve formed by the intersection of the light band and the surface reflects the microscopic geometric shape of the surface being tested. This method effectively addresses measurement challenges associated with small peaks and valleys on the surface, avoiding direct contact with the surface.

Due to its reliance on the light sectioning principle, the maximum and minimum heights of the surface’s peaks and valleys are limited by the depth of field and resolution of the objective lens. If the peak-valley height exceeds a certain range, a clear, accurate image cannot be formed in the eyepiece’s field of view, resulting in measurement failure or significant errors. Nevertheless, this method is widely used due to its low cost and ease of operation.

Optical Sensor Method

The optical sensor method is based on the principle of optical triangulation. The apparatus consists of two main components: a symmetrical triangulation rangefinder composed of two position-sensitive detectors (PSDs) and a laser, and an optical sensor made up of two photodiodes.

The PSD detects light signals carrying information about the surface of the object being tested, outputting two signals (Td and Sc1). The photodiodes detect light signals and output a single analog voltage signal (Sc2). By analyzing the relationship between the signals detected by the PSD and photodiodes and the surface roughness of the object, the surface roughness can be determined. This method leverages the well-established optical triangulation technique, making it relatively easy to implement, though its measurement accuracy is limited.

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